UGC NTA NET/JRF Exam, INDIAN CULTURE, JANUARY-2025

Hundis (also called Hundika) were traditional financial instruments in medieval India. They acted as bills of exchange, promissory notes, or remittance instruments used by merchants and bankers for trade settlements, especially during long-distance commerce. They served as a safe and reliable system for transferring money without physically carrying cash, which reduced risks like theft.

Amphorae were tall, narrow-necked Roman clay vessels, usually with two handles and a pointed base. They were primarily used to store and transport commodities like wine, olive oil, and grains across the Mediterranean world. Archaeological findings of amphorae at Indian coastal sites like Arikamedu indicate Indo-Roman trade relations.

The Suryasamhita, an ancient Indian astronomical text, mentions that the Moon revolves around the Earth and the Earth revolves around the Sun. This demonstrates early heliocentric ideas in Indian astronomy, much before similar concepts gained popularity in Europe. Other works like Brihatsamhita focus on astrology and natural sciences but not on this specific planetary motion.

Agrahara refers to tax-free villages or land grants given by kings or wealthy patrons to Brahmins for religious and educational purposes. These became centers of learning, where Vedic studies, rituals, and Sanskrit scholarship were pursued. Such grants also strengthened the link between rulers and Brahmins by legitimizing royal authority.

Raja Bhoja, the celebrated king of the Paramara dynasty (11th century), was also a great scholar and patron of arts. He authored Shringar Prakash, a treatise on poetics and aesthetics that focuses on the theory of rasa (sentiments) and the principles of literary beauty. Other works like Kavya Prakash were authored by Mammata, Sahitya Darpana by Vishwanatha, and Abhinava Bharati by Abhinava gupta.

Julian H. Steward, an American anthropologist, wrote Theory of Culture Change (1955). Не introduced the concept of "cultural ecology", explaining how human cultures adapt to their environment through technology, subsistence, and social systems. His approach emphasized multilinear evolution rather than a single evolutionary path for all societies.

The Akali Movement (1920s) was an offshoot of the Singh Sabha Movement, which started in the late 19th century to reform Sikhism by removing superstitions and reviving Khalsa identity. The Akali Movement specifically aimed at liberating gurdwaras from corrupt mahants and British interference, leading to the formation of the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC).

Uttararamacharita was written by Bhavabhuti, a classical Sanskrit dramatist of the 8th century. It depicts the later life of Lord Rama, particularly the episode of Sita's banishment and their eventual reunion. Bhavabhuti's works, like Mahaviracharita and Malatimadhava, are noted for deep emotional intensity and pathos.

In Sanskrit poetics, Pancha-Lakshana refers to the five characteristics of a Purana: Sarga (creation), Pratisarga (secondary creation), Vamsa (genealogies), Manvantara (cosmic cycles) and Vamsanucharita (dynastic history). Among the options, Sarga belongs to Purana-Lakshana, whereas Sandhi, Pratyaya, and Sutra belong to grammar.

H.H. Wilson, a British orientalist, translated the Vishnupurana into English in 1840. This Purana is one of the major texts of Vaishnavism, detailing cosmology, genealogies, myths, and religious practices devoted to Lord Vishnu. Other works listed were translated by different scholars, but Wilson is best known for bringing Vishnupurana to the English-reading world.