Mock Test-5 (Paper-1) (Question 1-50)

Burzahom and Gufkral (both located in Kashmir) have revealed the existence of pit dwellings. These dwelling pits are circular or oval in shape. Some of the pit chambers are square to rectangular in shape. Both the pits and the pit chambers have been dug into the natural soil.

Some of the deeper pits have also been provided with landing steps. These steps, however, do not lead down to the bottom, which indicates that a ladder may have been used for further descent. The filling in some of the pits also consists of charcoal and ash, which indicates human occupation.

All the given statements are correct. Three varieties of wheat occurred in the Harappan Civilization, namely, Triticum aestivum (or bread wheat), Triticum durum and Triticum dicoccum (also called Khapli).

Three varieties of barleys were also sown. Wheat and barley are considered to be the most important crops. The cultivation of lentils, mustard, linseed and sesamum has been attested, along with that of the Finger millet, ragi, jowar and bajra.

These all are excavation sites are in different states. Rakhigarhi in Haryana, Kalibanga in Rajasthan, Daimabad in Maharashtra and Manda in J&K.
Harappa

• In the 1920s, archaeologists such as Daya Ram Sahni, M.S. Vats, and Mortimer Wheeler excavated Harappa, the first site on the Ravi bank in the Montgomery district of Western Punjab (then undivided British India).
  ∗ The mounds of Harappa cover an extensive area of about 150 hectares.
• The site features a citadel mound to the west and a larger lower town to the southeast. The citadel was fortified with a mud-brick wall, massive towers, and gateways and was elevated on platforms.
  Excavations revealed that the lower town had various workshops for making shell, agate, and copper artefacts, houses, drains, bathing platforms, and wells.
• Harappa is often called the city of granaries, with 12 granaries found on site.
  ∗ This suggests either a need for storage due to seasonal or low grain productivity, a large population, or changes in the floodplain of the River Indus.
  ∗ The lack of clusters of sites around Harappa is notable and intriguing.
• Evidence of coffin burials in an H pattern hints at possible invasions, and Harappa is identified with Hariyupiya in the Rig-Veda.
• The city also shows evidence of direct trade and interaction with Mesopotamia, evidenced by the presence of seals.

The religious life of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:

• The early Vedic religion is also known as Henotheism or Kathenotheism—a belief in single gods, each in turn standing out as the highest. It has also been described as the worship of Nature.
• Another important feature was the tendency towards monotheism and even monism.
  ∗ Using material objects as symbols of deities was not entirely unknown. Regarding life after death, the Rigvedic hymns have no consistent theory.
• They personified the natural forces and looked upon them as living beings. The Aryans greatly respected nature, and wherever they found beauty or power in natural manifestations, they would bow their heads and entreat mercy from that object.
• Agni and Indra were invited to partake of sacrifices made by the whole tribe (Jana).
  ∗ Offerings of vegetables, barley, etc. were made to gods. They asked mainly for Praja (children), Pashu (cattle), food, wealth, health, etc.
• The Rig Veda, predominantly a religious scripture, provides ample insight into religious beliefs.
  ∗ The religion of the time was simple and free of all formalities. The only congregational prayer was Yagya.

According to Angunttara Nikaya (Buddhist text) and Bhagavati sutra (Jaina text) there were 16 mahajanapadas in ancient India.

16 Mahajanapadas were powerful states that emerged around the 6th century BCE, evolving from smaller Janapadas of the later Vedic period. Spread across the Indo-Gangetic plains and northern Deccan region, these states included prominent ones like Magadha, Kosala, Kuru, and Panchala. Each Mahajanapada developed fortified capitals, organized administrative systems, and standing armies supported by prosperous agriculture.

During this period, advancements in trade, urbanization, and iron technology transformed the region. Additionally, new religious and philosophical ideas began to flourish, contributing to a cultural shift. The Mahajanapadas laid the foundation for powerful empires, with Magadha eventually rising to prominence under the Mauryas..

The Mahajanapadas were religiously diverse, and people followed different religions, such as Hinduism, and heterodox sects such as Buddhism and Jainism. The other heterodox sects in this period were Ajivika, Ajana, and Charvaka. Moreover, The kings often patronized different religions, and the religious leaders had considerable influence over the people.

The Lingayat Community was founded by Basava in the 12th century AD. The Lingayats are Virashaivites Saivite. The philosophy of the Lingayatas was influenced by the teachings of both Shankarachary and Ramanuja.

This sect was characterised by an anti-Brahmanical spirit. Lakulisha was a prominent Shaivite revivalist, reformist and preceptor of the doctrine of the Pashupatas, one of the oldest sects of Shaivism.

According to some scholars, Lakulisha is the founder of the Pashupata sect. Matsyendranath: He is traditionally considered the founder of Hatha yoga as well as the author of some of its earliest texts. He is also seen as the founder of the Hatha sampradaya, having received the teachings from Shiva. He is especially associated with Kaula Shaivism.

Kulasekhara Alvar was seventh of the twelve Alvars.

• Taxila University is a renowned ancient centre of learning that significantly contributed to education and scholarship in the region. The site's earliest archaeological remains date back to the 5th century BC. According to the Ramayana, Taxila was founded by Bharata, the younger brother of Lord Rama.
• Due to its geographical location, Taxila emerged as a centre of learning after the Persian conquests, initially beginning as a Brahmanical learning centre
• Taxila's importance as a knowledge centre grew during the Maurya Empire and Greek rule (Indo-Greeks) in the third and second centuries BCE. It was also a prominent centre of Buddhist scholarship in the early centuries CE.
• Due to its strategic location, Taxila changed hands frequently throughout history.
• It surrendered to Alexander in 326 BCE, was annexed by the Maurya Empire around 317 BCE, and later became part of the Indo-Greek Kingdom around 200 BCE.
• The Indo-Scythians took control around 80 BCE, followed by the Kushan Empire, which conquered and destroyed Taxila around 30 CE, establishing a new city that became a centre of Buddhist learning.
• However, this prominence ended when the Hunas conquered and abandoned it in the 5th century CE

• Chola architecture was marked by construction of large, grand temples with multiple stories- Brihadishvara temples at Thanjavur and at Gangaikondacholapuram are two examples of this phase of Cholaarchitecture.
• The Brihadishvara temple at Tanjavur (also known as the Rajarajeshwara Temple) during its time of construction, was one of the largest buildings to be constructed in the world. Its many inscriptions make clear the triumphalist nature of the edifice.Dedicated to Shiva the temple, the temple took 15 years to build (995-1010 AD) though Rajaraja did not live to see its completion. Its construction was partly funded by war booty and tributes from Sri Lanka. It also received gifts from the emperor, his queen, and officials.
• The number of architects, accountants, guards, and functionaries and the names of numerous temple dancers, as well asdetails of the land revenue allocated towards its maintenance were engraved meticulously on the temple walls and formed a public record of the affairs of this institution central to the Chola capital.

• In 1351A.D. Firoz Tughlaq was the son of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq’'s younger brother. He succeeded the throne.
  Administrative Reforms
• withdrew all Taquavi (agricultural) loans granted by Mohammed-bin-Tughlag.
• He raised the salary of the revenue officers.
• He brought to an end to all unlawful and unjust taxes.
• He collected four important taxes which are:
  o Kharaj- 1/10 of the produce of the land
  o Khams- 1/5 of the war booty
  o Jizya-Poll Tax
  o Zakat-Tax on Muslims for specific religious purposes
• He constructed 150 wells, 100 bridges, and 50 dams, and also dug many irrigation canals.
• He constructed towns like Firozabad, Hissar, Jaunpur, and Fatehabad.
• Firoz banned all kinds of damages and torture.
• He levied Jizya on the Brahmins.
• He established hospitals (Dar-ul-shafa), Marriage Bureau, (Diwani-i-kherat), and an Employment Bureau.
• He also established Diwan-i-Istibgaq to give financial aid to the poor..
• He had the greatest number of slaves in his court, estimated at approximately 180,000.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq appointed Ibn battuta as the Chief Qazi of Delhi. Ibn Battuta has discussed his travels and incursions in contemporary Islamic world and documented them in Rihla. He was appointed as Qazi by Muhammad Tughlaq and was also appointed ambassador to China.