Many of the theorists whose ideas we discuss believe that media play a central role in modern social orders or our daily lives. Rather than presenting us with the types of empirical evidence favored by post positivists, they ask us to accept their view of media influence using logic, argument, and our own powers of observation.
Some describe compelling examples to illustrate their arguments. Others offer empirical evidence for their belief in powerful media, but they use innovative research methods, and so their work is challenged and questioned by post positivist researchers.
During the 1970s and 1980s, supporters of the limitedeffects perspective were especially troubled by the rise of cultural theories. They were quick to question the evidence offered by cultural theorists. They saw cultural theories as new variations of mass society theory-a theory they fell they had quite effectively debunked in the 1950s and 1960s. Limited-effects researches—believed that cultural theories were too speculative and the empirical research generated from these theories was too loosely structured.
Cultural studies and political economy theorists employ a broad range of research methods and theory-generation strategies, including some that are unsystematic and selective. As a result, critics believe that personal biases and interests inevitably motivate culture researchers and affect the outcome of their work.
But, argue cultural theory's defenders, this is acceptable as long as researchers openly acknowledge those biases or interests. The techniques used by many critical or cultural researchers are often qualitative method. That is, they highlight essential differences (distinctive qualities) in phenomena.
Epistemologically, the creation and advancement of knowledge tends to be accomplished through discourse (debate and discussion) involving proponents of contrasting or opposing theoretical positions. Theory is advanced through the formation of schools of thought in which there is consensus about the validity of a specific body of theory.
Often rival schools of theory emerge to challenge existing theories while developing and defending their own. Proof of a theory's power often rests in its ability to attract adherents and be defended against attacks from opponents.
Not surprisingly, researchers who adopt a post positivist approach find cultural theories hard to accept. They are skeptical of theories evaluated more through discourse than through empirical research. Post positivist media researchers place far less stress on theory development or criticism.
Their research methods are used to generate theory and to test theory rather than as a means of making qualitative differentiations. They argue that if empirical research is conducted according to prevailing standards, findings can be readily accepted throughout the research community.
If other researchers doubt the validity of specific findings, they can replicate (duplicate) the research and then report conflicting findings. But in truth, these conflicting reports are quite rare and provoke considerable controversy when they are published.
Though there is verbal debate between those who espouse conflicting empirically based theories, these disagreements rarely appear in print. When they do, both sides present empirical findings to support their positions.
Arguments often center on methodological disputes about the reliability and validity of research findings rather than the strength of the theoretical propositions-researchers disagree about whether appropriate methods were used, question the application of specific methods, or argue that the data were improperly analyzed.
Much less attention is given to the structure and consistency of theoretical propositions. When theory is developed, it takes the form of middlerange theory-theory that summarizes sets of empirical generalizations and doesn't make strong assertions or assumptions about the role of media.
What do the post positivists do to prove the influence of media?
